Bed Bugs and Human Health: A Global Review of Cimex hemipterus (Fabricius, 1803) and Cimex lectularius (Linnaeus, 1758) (Hemiptera: Cimicidae)
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Abstract
Cimex hemipterus (Fabricius, 1803) and Cimex lectularius (Linnaeus, 1758) (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) are globally significant pests, showing remarkable ecological adaptability, medical relevance, and increasing resistance to commonly used insecticides. This review synthesizes updated knowledge on their morphology, biology, life cycle, feeding behavior, and chemical communication, with emphasis on the comparative analysis between temperate and tropical species. Morphological traits such as pronotal expansion, setae distribution, and antennal proportions remain essential for species identification, particularly in regions where both species coexist. Biologically, bed bugs exhibit rapid population growth under optimal temperatures and rely on specialized mouthparts and hematophagy, which contribute to dermatological reactions including papules, pruritus, and, in rare cases, anemia. Insecticide resistance has expanded across pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, and mixed formulations, driven by kdr mutations, metabolic detoxification, and behavioral adaptations, significantly compromising chemical control strategies. Additionally, semiochemicals, including aldehydes, aggregation pheromones, and host-derived essential oils, aggregation, and host localization, represent promising targets for monitoring and integrated pest management. Control approaches that combine heat treatment, physical exclusion, environmental sanitation, and selective use of effective insecticides show the highest efficacy, particularly in settings with recurrent or high-density infestations. Understanding the biological and chemical ecology of these species is crucial for improving detection tools, surveillance programs, and long-term management strategies. The evidence presented reinforces the need for integrated interventions supported by continuous research to mitigate the growing impact of bed bugs on public health worldwide.
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